Alam: Difference between revisions

==History and Terminology==

In both Arabic and Persian, the word ʿalam (pl. aʿlām) conveys various senses connected with the general meaning of a distinctive sign or mark. In Persian, the word had early carried the meaning of ensign (neshan) and of standard or flag. <ref>drafsh/derafsh; see Zamakhshari, Pishrow-e adab ya moqaddamat al-adab, ed. M. K. Emam, Tehran, 1963, I, p. 406.</ref> The same meanings may also be rendered by the word ʿalama (pl. ʿelām, ʿalāʾem, ʿalāmāt), which derives from the same root. Synonyms in the meaning of standard or flag include Arabic lewaʾ and raya, Turkish beyraq (Turkman beydaq) and sanjaq, <ref>Persian sanjaq; used mostly in Ottoman controlled areas, it seems to have early designated a standard larger than a beyraq, raya, or ʿalam; see J. Deny, “Sanjaq,” EI1 IV p. 148-50.</ref> and Persian paṛcham. <ref>introduced recently with this meaning; see ʿA. Nayyer-e Nuri, “Beyraq,” p. 953; Ḏoka, “Tarikhcha,” I, p. 14, n. 1.</ref> For the Turks, ʿalam (pronounced alem) retains about the same meanings, while also designating their national and religious emblem, the crescent, <ref>A. Sakisian, “Le croissant comme emblème national et religieux en Turquie,” Syria 13, 1941, pp. 66-80.</ref> a symbol that was also used by some rulers of Persia. Timur employed it as an emblem and perhaps as a talisman; <ref>Ackerman, “Standards,” p. 2778.</ref> his huge tents were held up by long poles topped by “an apple of burnished copper above which is a crescent”. <ref>D. N. Wilber, in Iran 17, 1979, pp. 131ff., fig. 1, b and c, quoting Le Strange, Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, London, 1928, pp. 238ff.; see also Ackerman, loc. cit.</ref> But the chronological evolution of the shape and function of finials is difficult to trace.

Any serious research into the historical development of banners is hindered by the scarcity and heterogeneity of sources (archeological, iconographical, literary, etc.). Problems arise from the identification of both finials and streamers or other pieces of cloth attached to the staffs. Shapes and functions of standards, banners, and badges from pre-Islamic Persia until now undoubtedly show signs of continuity, particularly in the use of astral symbols. <ref>Ackerman, “Standards,” pp. 2771ff.</ref> Contradictory views have been voiced about the appearance and shape of the Shir o khurshid (lion and sun) motif in iconography and on the cloth or finials of standards. <ref>a few hints in Ackerman, “Standards,” pp. 2778ff.; ʿA. Nayyer-e Nuri, “Beyraq;” Ḏoka, “Tarikhcha;” H. Nayyer-e Nuri, “Ḏayl”.</ref> Although it became the Iranian national armorial bearings, it was not the most frequent emblem to appear on religious standards or Shiʿite ʿalam banners.

==Alam in Muharram Rituals==  

Carried in procession, ʿalams are hardly recognizable, since they are loaded with ex-votos (sing. [[nadhr]], dakhil) similar to those attached to sacred trees, and ornaments; these include pieces of cloth (cashmere shawls, ribbons, etc.); precious or eye-catching objects such as mirrors, jewels, and watches; large feathers, vases with flowers and greenery, rose water bottles, lamps, lanterns, and candles burning in tulip shaped glasses (lala). The banners are called many names besides ʿalam. The word tuq, although said now to be confined to Qom<ref>Faqihi, Tarikh, p. 277.<br /></ref>, was used in [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qajar-dynasty Qajar] times in Azerbaijan, <ref>described in Lassy, Mysteries, p. 112.</ref> Tehran (Van Vloten, “Drapeaux;” Mostawfi, Sharh), and probably elsewhere. Beyraq seems still to be used to designate various kinds of religious banners. <ref>e.g. Lassy, loc. cit.; Homayuni, Farhang, pp. 400ff.; here, Figures 25-27.</ref> The Mongol term kotal also applied to specific kinds of banners, <ref>Calmard, “Etendards,” pp. 37ff.</ref> which may be known under other names. <ref>e.g. the ʿalam e rakhtpush formerly used in Qom, Faqihi, Tarikh, p. 275.</ref>

Tuq or ʿalam banners are taken out of their respective [[tekyeh]]s only before noon on the day of [[Ashura]]. <ref>Faqihi, Tarikh, p. 278.</ref> Under [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Naser-al-Din-Shah Naser-al-din Shah] the ornamentation and departure of the royal ʿalam from the andarun to the tekyeh was made with great ceremony. <ref>Moʿayyer-al-mamalek, Yaddashtha, p. 105.</ref> Influential preachers ([[rawza]]-khan) had their emblematic ʿalam banners. <ref>Mostawfi, Sharh, I, pp. 282ff.</ref> Heavy banners needed to be carried by strong bearers (ʿalam-kesh, tuqchi, beyraqdar), generally belonging to a local [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zur-kana zur-khana] or “house of strength,” who were surrounded by attendants (patuqi). In Qom, these patuqis protect the bearer from the pressure of the crowd eager to touch or kiss the spearhead of the tuq. Various kinds of banners were used in contests between young men in towns and villages. <ref>e.g., Calmard, “Etendards”, p. 36.</ref> Jugglers of banners (ʿalam-bazan, patuqi) exhibited their skills in Muharram ceremonies. <ref>e.g., Calmard, Monde iranien 2, 1974, pp. 80ff., 114ff.</ref>

(1) In its traditional form, a standard is a lance (derafsh, neyza) to which is attached a piece (or pieces) of cloth (e.g. the tuq mentioned by Kashefi, loc. cit.). Religiously it has both a heavenly and a human value; its shape is anthropomorphic: a finial (head), a staff (body), and a pad (foot). Its symbolic function is akin to that of tree.  

(3) Each emblem carried in procession is linked to the events of [[Karbala]]. Thus, the prototype of [[Muharram]] standards is the ʿalam carried by [[ʿAbbas b. ʿAli]], Hussain’s ʿalam-dar (standard bearer). Various shrines in Iran, India, and elsewhere claim to possess this relic or other standards connected to various events; the hagiography connected to each needs to be studied individually. Although it may have an older prototype, the spread hand emblem ([[pancha]]) representing the panch tan <ref>the “five persons;” see fig. 28.</ref> is also linked with Hussain’s cult.