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The root of the word Ashura has the meaning of tenth in Semitic languages. The Arabic term derives from the Hebrew word ʿasor with the Aramaic determinative ending -ā. It refers broadly to the first ten days of Muharram, but more specifically to the tenth day. | The root of the word Ashura has the meaning of tenth in Semitic languages. The Arabic term derives from the Hebrew word ʿasor with the Aramaic determinative ending -ā. It refers broadly to the first ten days of Muharram, but more specifically to the tenth day. | ||
==‘Ashura in Shiʿite piety== | ==‘Ashura in Shiʿite piety== | ||
After the death of [[Muawiya]] in the spring of 60/680, his son [[Yazid]] succeeded him as [[caliph]]. Yazid’s succession by hereditary appointment rather than election or popular acclaim met with strong opposition in many quarters of a community already torn by conflict and dissension. Among the many dissenting groups was the party (Shiʿa) of [[‘Ali b. Abi Taleb]], led by his son, Imam Hussain. Hussain’s supporters in [[Kufa]] urged him to lead them in revolt against Yazid’s rule; after some hesitation, he answered their persistent entreaties, not simply from political motives, but also because of an idealistic view of Islam that he sought to defend at all cost. His martyrdom has therefore been regarded by Muslims, Sunni as well as Shiʿite, as the model for self-sacrifice in the way of God, a revolt against wrong-doing and oppression. This fact has not been fully appreciated by most Western historians; yet it is crucial for a true understanding of the significance of ‘Ashura for the Muslim community in general, and especially its Shiʿite members. | After the death of [[Muawiya]] in the spring of 60/680, his son [[Yazid]] succeeded him as [[caliph]]. Yazid’s succession by hereditary appointment rather than election or popular acclaim met with strong opposition in many quarters of a community already torn by conflict and dissension. Among the many dissenting groups was the party (Shiʿa) of [[ʿAli ibn Abi Talib|‘Ali b. Abi Taleb]], led by his son, Imam Hussain. Hussain’s supporters in [[Kufa]] urged him to lead them in revolt against Yazid’s rule; after some hesitation, he answered their persistent entreaties, not simply from political motives, but also because of an idealistic view of Islam that he sought to defend at all cost. His martyrdom has therefore been regarded by Muslims, Sunni as well as Shiʿite, as the model for self-sacrifice in the way of God, a revolt against wrong-doing and oppression. This fact has not been fully appreciated by most Western historians; yet it is crucial for a true understanding of the significance of ‘Ashura for the Muslim community in general, and especially its Shiʿite members. | ||
Hussain left for Kufa with his family and about seventy men. On the second of Muharram, 61/680 he encamped on the plain of [[Karbala]], where he faced an army of about 4,000 men sent to intercept him by the governor of Kufa, [[ʿObaydallah b. Ziad]]. After a week of fruitless negotiations, the head of the army, [[Omar Ibn Sa’d|ʿOmar b. Saʿd]], put the choice to Hussain and his followers of either surrendering to the authority of Ibn Ziad or fighting. The battle that ensued lasted from early morning to mid-afternoon. Hussain and his followers, including the able male members of his family, were killed; his women and children were led captive first to Kufa, then to Damascus. <ref>Tabari [Cairo], II, pp. 295-390; Mofid, Ershad, ed. Sayyed Kazem al-Miamawi, Tehran, 1377/1957-58, pp. 215ff., tr. I. K. A. Howard, London, 1981, p. 370.</ref> | Hussain left for Kufa with his family and about seventy men. On the second of Muharram, 61/680 he encamped on the plain of [[Karbala]], where he faced an army of about 4,000 men sent to intercept him by the governor of Kufa, [[ʿObaydallah b. Ziad]]. After a week of fruitless negotiations, the head of the army, [[Omar Ibn Sa’d|ʿOmar b. Saʿd]], put the choice to Hussain and his followers of either surrendering to the authority of Ibn Ziad or fighting. The battle that ensued lasted from early morning to mid-afternoon. Hussain and his followers, including the able male members of his family, were killed; his women and children were led captive first to Kufa, then to Damascus. <ref>Tabari [Cairo], II, pp. 295-390; Mofid, Ershad, ed. Sayyed Kazem al-Miamawi, Tehran, 1377/1957-58, pp. 215ff., tr. I. K. A. Howard, London, 1981, p. 370.</ref> | ||
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The death of Imam Hussain produced an immediate reaction in the Muslim community, especially in Iraq. When the people of Kufa saw his head and the pitiful state of the captives, they began to weep and beat their breasts in anguish. <ref> Yaʿqubi, ed. M. S. Baḥr-al-ʿolum, Najaf, 1384/1964, II, pp. 231ff.</ref> Many of them regretted their failure to support Hussain and were filled with remorse; they came to form the movement known as the repenters ([[al-tawwabun]]). The chaos and bloodshed that followed gives eloquent testimony to the far-reaching effect of the tragedy of Karbala on subsequent Muslim history. <ref>J. Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and its Fall, tr. M. G. Weir, Beirut, 1963, esp. pp. 147-200.</ref> | The death of Imam Hussain produced an immediate reaction in the Muslim community, especially in Iraq. When the people of Kufa saw his head and the pitiful state of the captives, they began to weep and beat their breasts in anguish. <ref> Yaʿqubi, ed. M. S. Baḥr-al-ʿolum, Najaf, 1384/1964, II, pp. 231ff.</ref> Many of them regretted their failure to support Hussain and were filled with remorse; they came to form the movement known as the repenters ([[al-tawwabun]]). The chaos and bloodshed that followed gives eloquent testimony to the far-reaching effect of the tragedy of Karbala on subsequent Muslim history. <ref>J. Wellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and its Fall, tr. M. G. Weir, Beirut, 1963, esp. pp. 147-200.</ref> | ||
Among the few who escaped the massacre of Karbala was Hussain’s only surviving son, [[‘Ali Zayn-al-ʿabedin]], who was spared on account of sickness; he was soon proclaimed fourth [[Imam]] by a considerable segment of the Shiʿite community. His home in Medina became an important center for the growth of the ‘Ashura cults; no doubt his piety, political quietism, and continuous sorrow for the tragedy provided the religious basis of the ‘Ashura celebration. | Among the few who escaped the massacre of Karbala was Hussain’s only surviving son, [[ʿAli b. al-Hussain|‘Ali Zayn-al-ʿabedin]], who was spared on account of sickness; he was soon proclaimed fourth [[Imam]] by a considerable segment of the Shiʿite community. His home in Medina became an important center for the growth of the ‘Ashura cults; no doubt his piety, political quietism, and continuous sorrow for the tragedy provided the religious basis of the ‘Ashura celebration. | ||
==History of the Commemoration by Shi’a== | ==History of the Commemoration by Shi’a== | ||
Commemorative services (majales al-taʿzia) first held in the houses of the imams and their followers, originally consisted of recounting the tragedy, reflecting on its meaning, and reciting elegies ([[marthia]]) in memory of the [[martyred Imam]]. From the beginning, these majales were not limited to the ‘Ashura days, but were and still are held at any time of the year. Soon the shrines of the imams in Iraq and Iran became important centers of pilgrimage ([[ziara]]), where the pious held their lamentations. <ref>Ibn Qawluya, Kamel al-ziarat, ed. Mirza ʿAbdallah | Commemorative services (majales al-taʿzia) first held in the houses of the imams and their followers, originally consisted of recounting the tragedy, reflecting on its meaning, and reciting elegies ([[marthia]]) in memory of the [[martyred Imam]]. From the beginning, these majales were not limited to the ‘Ashura days, but were and still are held at any time of the year. Soon the shrines of the imams in Iraq and Iran became important centers of pilgrimage ([[ziara]]), where the pious held their lamentations. <ref>Ibn Qawluya, Kamel al-ziarat, ed. Mirza ʿAbdallah Hussain Amini Tabrizi, Najāf, 1356/1937, pp. 325-26.</ref> | ||
During the [[Umayyad]] period, the ‘Ashura cult and the spirit of revolt it fostered grew in secret under persecution and repression. The [[ʿAbbasid]] rulers, who came to power on the wave of pro-ʿAlid revolt, at first encouraged and patronized large public assemblies in commemoration of the sufferings of the Prophet’s family ([[Ahl Al-Bayt]]) and the tragedy of Karbala. By the end of the 4th/10th century, professional mourners (naʾeh), also known as the reciters or story tellers (qorraʾ) of Hussain, chanted elegies and led the pious in dirges; they normally read martyrdom narratives ([[maqatel]]) relating the story of Hussain in all its details. | During the [[Umayyad]] period, the ‘Ashura cult and the spirit of revolt it fostered grew in secret under persecution and repression. The [[ʿAbbasid]] rulers, who came to power on the wave of pro-ʿAlid revolt, at first encouraged and patronized large public assemblies in commemoration of the sufferings of the Prophet’s family ([[Ahl Al-Bayt]]) and the tragedy of Karbala. By the end of the 4th/10th century, professional mourners (naʾeh), also known as the reciters or story tellers (qorraʾ) of Hussain, chanted elegies and led the pious in dirges; they normally read martyrdom narratives ([[Maqtal|maqatel]]) relating the story of Hussain in all its details. | ||
In 351/962, under [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/buyids Buyid] patronage, ‘Ashura was declared a day of public mourning in Baghdad. Processions were held in the streets of the city, markets closed, and shops draped in black. <ref>ʿAbbas Qomi, Nafas al-mahmum, p. 226, Persian tr. Romuz al-Shahada by M. B. Kamaraʾi, Tehran, 1379/1960; Hebat-al-din Shahrestani, Nahzat al- | In 351/962, under [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/buyids Buyid] patronage, ‘Ashura was declared a day of public mourning in Baghdad. Processions were held in the streets of the city, markets closed, and shops draped in black. <ref>ʿAbbas Qomi, Nafas al-mahmum, p. 226, Persian tr. Romuz al-Shahada by M. B. Kamaraʾi, Tehran, 1379/1960; Hebat-al-din Shahrestani, Nahzat al-Hussain, Karbala, 1969, pp. 149ff.</ref> Special edifices were built for the celebrations of ‘Ashura (called [[Hussainiya]]; also [[tekyeh]] in Iran), and by the end of the 3rd/9th century these were common in Cairo, Aleppo, and many Iranian cities. | ||
As early as the 5th/11th century Iranian poets composed elegies in his memory. One of the most comprehensive works, in poetry and prose, on the subject in Persian is [[Rawzat al-Shuhada]] by a Sunni author, Hussain b. ‘Ali Waʿez Kashefi, (d. 910/1504-05). An outstanding Shiʿite poet was [[Mohtasham Kashani]]. <ref> d. 996/1588; see the translation of his famous haftband in Browne, Lit. Hist. Persia IV, pp. 172-77.</ref> From Iran, the ‘Ashura celebration was carried to the Indian subcontinent and other parts of the Muslim world influenced by Iranian culture. The greatest impetus for the development of the ‘Ashura celebration as a popular religious and artistic phenomenon came with the rise of the [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids Safavids] to power in the early 10th/16th century. It was during their rule that the important dramatic genre known as [[taʿziya]] was highly developed and popularized. | As early as the 5th/11th century Iranian poets composed elegies in his memory. One of the most comprehensive works, in poetry and prose, on the subject in Persian is [[Rawzat al-Shuhada]] by a Sunni author, Hussain b. ‘Ali Waʿez Kashefi, (d. 910/1504-05). An outstanding Shiʿite poet was [[Mohtasham Kashani]]. <ref> d. 996/1588; see the translation of his famous haftband in Browne, Lit. Hist. Persia IV, pp. 172-77.</ref> From Iran, the ‘Ashura celebration was carried to the Indian subcontinent and other parts of the Muslim world influenced by Iranian culture. The greatest impetus for the development of the ‘Ashura celebration as a popular religious and artistic phenomenon came with the rise of the [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids Safavids] to power in the early 10th/16th century. It was during their rule that the important dramatic genre known as [[taʿziya]] was highly developed and popularized. | ||