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The “penitents” ('''tawwabun''''')'' is the self-imposed title of an early Shi’i movement that arose in response to the defeat and [[martyrdom]] of [[Hussain ibn Ali|Imam Hussain]] and his companions at [[Karbala]] in 61/680. The movement was led by five former close associates of ‘[[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]], chief of whom was Sulayman b. Shurad whose honorific Shayk al-shi’a suggests his prestige among his fellows, mostly elderly Arab males of Kufa. | The “penitents” ('''tawwabun''''')'' is the self-imposed title of an early Shi’i movement that arose in response to the defeat and [[martyrdom]] of [[Hussain ibn Ali|Imam Hussain]] and his companions at [[Karbala]] in 61/680. The movement was led by five former close associates of ‘[[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]], chief of whom was Sulayman b. Shurad whose honorific Shayk al-shi’a suggests his prestige among his fellows, mostly elderly Arab males of Kufa. | ||
== Significance == | ==Significance== | ||
The penitents (''tawwabun)'' were the Kufans who accused themselves of abandoning [[Hussain ibn Ali|Hussain]] after inviting him to take over the caliphate and of thus being responsible for his death in the desert of [[Karbala]]. (Halm 1997) Their sense of guilt was undoubtedly what called for penitence and self-abasement in the procession which later became an annual ritual of commemoration in the month of [[Muharram]] culminating in the [[Ashura]] on its tenth day. The seventh-century penitents’ emphasis on sin and repentance, however, developed into an elaborate theodicy of [[martyrdom]] and the suffering of the Shiʿa as (innocent) victims. The guilt for the martyrdom of Hussain and his family, together with usurpation of the rights of the subsequent Imams (and their alleged poisoning), came to be placed squarely on the shoulders of the usurpers and tyrannical governments. It was not the wronged Shiʿite sect but the wrongdoing usurpers who were guilty and sinful. Later development of the theodicy also postulated compensation in the hereafter for Hussain, [[Lord of the martyrs|Lord of the Martyrs]], who could intercede for his oppressed Shiʿite flock and obtain salvation for them in the other world. As the Shiʿa considered themselves the saved sect (''firqa najiya''), the salvational value of Hussain’s intercession came to the foreground.<ref>Halm, H. 1997. Shiʿa Islam. From Religion to Revolution, A. Brown, tr., Princeton: Markus Wiener Publisher.</ref> | The penitents (''tawwabun)'' were the Kufans who accused themselves of abandoning [[Hussain ibn Ali|Hussain]] after inviting him to take over the caliphate and of thus being responsible for his death in the desert of [[Karbala]]. (Halm 1997) Their sense of guilt was undoubtedly what called for penitence and self-abasement in the procession which later became an annual ritual of commemoration in the month of [[Muharram]] culminating in the [[Ashura]] on its tenth day. The seventh-century penitents’ emphasis on sin and repentance, however, developed into an elaborate theodicy of [[martyrdom]] and the suffering of the Shiʿa as (innocent) victims. The guilt for the martyrdom of Hussain and his family, together with usurpation of the rights of the subsequent Imams (and their alleged poisoning), came to be placed squarely on the shoulders of the usurpers and tyrannical governments. It was not the wronged Shiʿite sect but the wrongdoing usurpers who were guilty and sinful. Later development of the theodicy also postulated compensation in the hereafter for Hussain, [[Lord of the martyrs|Lord of the Martyrs]], who could intercede for his oppressed Shiʿite flock and obtain salvation for them in the other world. As the Shiʿa considered themselves the saved sect (''firqa najiya''), the salvational value of Hussain’s intercession came to the foreground.<ref>[[Heinz Halm|Halm, H]]. 1997. Shiʿa Islam. From Religion to Revolution, A. Brown, tr., Princeton: Markus Wiener Publisher.</ref> | ||
== Formation of the Tawwabun == | ==Formation of the Tawwabun== | ||
When Imam Hussain was martyred and Ibn Ziyad returned from Nukhaylah to Kufa, the Shi’a disputed with one another in reproach and repentance. They realized their great sin that they invited Imam Hussain and later withdrew their hands from assisting and complying him, while he was killed in their very neighborhood. They realized that until and unless they either killed his murderers or were themselves killed, the sin and disgrace could not be washed off. | When Imam Hussain was martyred and Ibn Ziyad returned from Nukhaylah to Kufa, the Shi’a disputed with one another in reproach and repentance. They realized their great sin that they invited Imam Hussain and later withdrew their hands from assisting and complying him, while he was killed in their very neighborhood. They realized that until and unless they either killed his murderers or were themselves killed, the sin and disgrace could not be washed off. | ||
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They did as advised and a large number of men rallied around them after the death of Yazid. The Kufans too expelled ‘Amr bin Hurays from Kufa and pledged allegiance for Abdullah bin Zubayr, while Sulayman and his companions remained busy in their missionary activities. | They did as advised and a large number of men rallied around them after the death of Yazid. The Kufans too expelled ‘Amr bin Hurays from Kufa and pledged allegiance for Abdullah bin Zubayr, while Sulayman and his companions remained busy in their missionary activities. | ||
== Source == | ==Source== | ||
* Amir Arjomand, Said. (2016) ''Sociology of Shiʿite Islam'', Brill: Boston | *Amir Arjomand, Said. (2016) ''Sociology of Shiʿite Islam'', Brill: Boston | ||
* Denny, F.M., “Tawwābūn”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 20 February 2020 | *Denny, F.M., “Tawwābūn”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 20 February 2020 | ||
* [http://alhassanain.org/Nafasul%20Mahmum%3B%20Relating%20to%20the%20heart%20rending%20tragedy%20of%20Karbala/Nafasul_Mahmum%3B_Relating_to_the_heart_rending_tragedy_of_Karbala_html/nafasul_mahmum.htm Shaykh 'Abbas Qummi , Nafasul Mahmum; Relating to the heart rending tragedy of Karbala'] | *[http://alhassanain.org/Nafasul%20Mahmum%3B%20Relating%20to%20the%20heart%20rending%20tragedy%20of%20Karbala/Nafasul_Mahmum%3B_Relating_to_the_heart_rending_tragedy_of_Karbala_html/nafasul_mahmum.htm Shaykh 'Abbas Qummi , Nafasul Mahmum; Relating to the heart rending tragedy of Karbala'] | ||
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== References == | ==References== | ||
[[Category:Shi’i movements]] | [[Category:Shi’i movements]] | ||
[[Category:Islamic History]] | [[Category:Islamic History]] | ||
<references /> | |||