Editing Alam (section)

==History and Terminology==
In both Arabic and Persian, the word ʿalam (pl. aʿlām) conveys various senses connected with the general meaning of a distinctive sign or mark. In Persian, the word had early carried the meaning of ensign (neshan) and of standard or flag. <ref>drafsh/derafsh; see Zamakhshari, Pishrow-e adab ya moqaddamat al-adab, ed. M. K. Emam, Tehran, 1963, I, p. 406.</ref> The same meanings may also be rendered by the word ʿalama (pl. ʿelām, ʿalāʾem, ʿalāmāt), which derives from the same root. Synonyms in the meaning of standard or flag include Arabic lewaʾ and raya, Turkish beyraq (Turkman beydaq) and sanjaq, <ref>Persian sanjaq; used mostly in Ottoman controlled areas, it seems to have early designated a standard larger than a beyraq, raya, or ʿalam; see J. Deny, “Sanjaq,” EI1 IV p. 148-50.</ref> and Persian paṛcham. <ref>introduced recently with this meaning; see ʿA. Nayyer-e Nuri, “Beyraq,” p. 953; Ḏoka, “Tarikhcha,” I, p. 14, n. 1.</ref> For the Turks, ʿalam (pronounced alem) retains about the same meanings, while also designating their national and religious emblem, the crescent, <ref>A. Sakisian, “Le croissant comme emblème national et religieux en Turquie,” Syria 13, 1941, pp. 66-80.</ref> a symbol that was also used by some rulers of Persia. Timur employed it as an emblem and perhaps as a talisman; <ref>Ackerman, “Standards,” p. 2778.</ref> his huge tents were held up by long poles topped by “an apple of burnished copper above which is a crescent”. <ref>D. N. Wilber, in Iran 17, 1979, pp. 131ff., fig. 1, b and c, quoting Le Strange, Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, London, 1928, pp. 238ff.; see also Ackerman, loc. cit.</ref> But the chronological evolution of the shape and function of finials is difficult to trace.

Any serious research into the historical development of banners is hindered by the scarcity and heterogeneity of sources (archeological, iconographical, literary, etc.). Problems arise from the identification of both finials and streamers or other pieces of cloth attached to the staffs. Shapes and functions of standards, banners, and badges from pre-Islamic Persia until now undoubtedly show signs of continuity, particularly in the use of astral symbols. <ref>Ackerman, “Standards,” pp. 2771ff.</ref> Contradictory views have been voiced about the appearance and shape of the Shir o khurshid (lion and sun) motif in iconography and on the cloth or finials of standards. <ref>a few hints in Ackerman, “Standards,” pp. 2778ff.; ʿA. Nayyer-e Nuri, “Beyraq;” Ḏoka, “Tarikhcha;” H. Nayyer-e Nuri, “Ḏayl”.</ref> Although it became the Iranian national armorial bearings, it was not the most frequent emblem to appear on religious standards or Shiʿite ʿalam banners.